Images from project
Love in Marine Mammals & Their
Mamas
As human mammals, we think about
the love that exists between mothers and their children. There are certain
behaviors that come to mind to indicate the presence of love as an emotion. For
example some include touch, proximity, and vocal communication. However, these
behaviors are also present in the relationship between mammals and their
offspring.
Love in mammals is studied through
the use of attachment because the concept of love itself is subjective.
This idea has been extensively studied in animals such as elephants and
dolphins. Both of these animals are highly intelligent, which explains why
humans would seek to observe such tendencies within their behavior. Elephants
are said to be great mothers—they bathe, shield and even carry their babies
over obstacles. (asianelephant.net). Additionally, there have been reports of a
dolphin mother carrying her dead calf on her back against the ocean current.
(Nye). We can perceive these behaviors as acts of love and tenderness. However,
these can also be inaccurate projections of our own emotions onto other
species.
Within our human umwelt it is very
easy to assume that because mammals exhibit these behaviors that they are also
experiencing love. Considering that human perception is highly influenced by
emotions, how do we begin to interpret what these indicators of love mean for
mammals? What do they mean for humans? Is there any sort of common thread
between both of these interpretations?
To begin with, the idea of parental love has survival advantages
because it implies the effective protection and care of the offspring. (Brandon).
As humans we think of these actions in emotional terms as a feeling that drives
the behavior rather than an evolutionary response to further our genetic code.
This idea of love in animals is not a popular subject of study due to its
subjective nature, therefore making it difficult to quantify a superiority that
humans feel over animals, relating it back to the theory of mind experiments.
On the other hand, scientists have recently found spindle cells in animals,
such as whales. (Brandon). This is a significant discovery in favor of
emotional love because spindle cells have been studied in relation to allowing
humans to feel emotions such as love and grief. Studies have also shown that
these spindle cells have evolved analogously within cetaceans and primates.
(Brandon). This supports the idea of love within animals although it does not
prove that they experience it in the same way as humans.
In another prominent study, scientist Harry Harlow performed
various experiments addressing love in infant monkeys using surrogate mothers.
He used two surrogates, a cloth and wire frame mother and put the babies in
different situations to see how they would interact with them. In his
experiments he found that the babies did not discriminate based on where they
would feed from, but the cloth mother gave more emotional support. (Harlow 72).
He found a correlation between bodily contact and attachment. Harlow also
performed tests to see if the relationship between the infant and surrogate was
the same as with a real mother by exposing both pairs to the same situation: an
unfamiliar element. His results were the same, both sought comfort from their
“mothers” and he said this proved their love.
The idea of imprinting was also very strong in this article and
in our research. It is the idea that the offspring becomes attached to the
first thing they see moving, which is usually the mother (Lorenz 73). They are
responding to cues to identify their primary caregiver. Imprinting is a big
part of this because there is a limited window in which the mother-child bond is
formed. Studies have shown if they are neglected, the child will have problems
developing emotional bonds later in life.
When scientists study this idea of love in animals there seems
to be two sides, with one saying that the behaviors show love and the other
saying that the behaviors are instinctual. Can they be both? Is it demeaning to
our idea of love if there is a logical reason behind it? In the article, Homage
to Mickey, the author explained why we think baby animals are cute in an
objective and scientific way. Is it not love if it is for survival? (Gould).
Marine mammals have been studied more extensively for their
intelligence, but not for their emotional relationships. Studying them further
could potentially uncover new ideas about how mammals experience love,
especially because a majority of the research done in this field has been more
geared towards land mammals. In order to research these these behaviors, we
looked at four types of marine mammals: dugongs, sea otters, pinnipeds, and
cetaceans. We decided not to study polar bears, which are the fifth category of
marine mammals. This was because they were more of an outlier of the group, and
the fact that they are not completely aquatic animals.
Within the four
types of marine mammals, we decided to look for love within three main
indicating behaviors: touch, proximity, and vocal communication. In addition to
looking at how marine mammals and their offspring use these behaviors, we also
pinpointed what they mean semiotically for humans as well. First, within the
sense of touch among humans, we related this as an indicator and track for the
presence of a mother or child. Furthermore, touch also acts as a form of
non-verbal communication. We use different forms of touch-related actions
within maternal relationships to express a wide variety of thoughts and
emotions.
Research from the Seaworld
Organization tells us that manatees, a member of the sirenian group, frequently
nuzzle in groups of mother and offspring while body-surfing. (Manatee Behavior).
Touch also plays a prominent role in sea otters. National Geographic tells us
that sea otter mothers carry their children on their stomachs, nuzzle, and hold
hands in order to keep from floating apart. (National Geographic).
Next, we looked at proximity. In
humans, there are extensive variations as to how we use proximity in maternal
relationships, including living in close proximity, children staying within
sight range of their mothers, and determining adulthood of the offspring by
decreasing proximity. Distance also acts as an indicating track and an icon of
presence. When a mother is in close proximity to her child, the child is able
to feel safe knowing that if something happens, the mother is immediately able
to come to his or her aid.
This sense of proximity is also
very present within marine mammals. Within manatees, although it may be weaned
by the end of its first year, the calf remains close to its mother for up to
two years. It is dependent on its mother not only for nutrition, but also for
learning about feeding and resting areas, travel routes, and warm water
refuges. (Sea World). A similar post-weaning proximity is also common among
dolphins. In sea otters and sea lions, the diving depth and distance of the
mother directly corresponds with the age of the offspring. (Thometz, Tinker,
Staetdler, Mayer, Williams).
Finally we looked at vocal communication. For
humans, vocal language is one of the most significant methods of communication.
Talking between mother and child represents a very important stage of
development and is very closely tied to portraying emotions and creating a
bond.
Marine mammals also rely heavily on vocal
communication. For example, dolphins use whistles and clicks as signals while
mothers and offspring are apart. These sounds are also used for navigation and
social behaviors. (defenders.org). In addition, Galapagos sea lions use
specialized vocal identification between mothers and offspring. (Brill Online).
After observing the extensive examples of
mutual maternal behaviors between marine mammals and humans, certain things
became apparent. For one thing, all indicators of love for both humans and
marine mammals point to survival benefits. With that being said, it is a
possible hypothesis that our human perspective of seeing love as an outside
force beyond the concept of survival could be yet another survival method for
us as a species. It is a possibility that marine mammals do not need to feel
love in order to justify their maternal bonds, and that humans have just
evolved in a way so that we do require some sort of justification.
In previous studies, scientists
have conducted experiments to determine how the mother will react in various
circumstances. According to a study by Professors Andy Szabo and Dave Duffus of
the University of Victoria in British Columbia, Canada, humpback whale calves
were observed to dive for shorter periods than their mothers. The mother takes
significantly longer dives in order to forage for food. She will shorten the
length of her dives in order to decrease the time of separation between her and
her calves hence decreasing the risk of predation. (Szabo and Duffus 1086). A
potential experiment to determine the need for close proximity when foraging
for food is baiting the mother and her calf away from one another. We can then
observe the possible reactions to being separated from one another for long
periods of time as well as just how feasible or difficult it is do so.
Unlike manatees and sea otters that
physically carry their young in the water, dolphins are observed to partake in
infant carrying by echelon position—swimming in formation or rank ahead of
their young. This allows for close proximity between the mother and the calf.
Aerospace engineer Professor Daniel Weihs, from the Israel Institute of
Technology describes the process of keeping up with the mother through her
slipstream.
“As the mother moves through the water, she pushes the water in
front of her forwards and to the sides, to make space for her body…the space
behind her is filled with water moving forward and inward. If the baby is [to
the right] obliquely behind, it gets dragged along by the forward-moving
water”. (Weihs).
The Harry Harlow experiment could
also be altered in order to further this research. An inverse of this
experiment would be to replace the young with a surrogate being or young not
their own. Will the mother’s be able to determine the difference in having
their young replaced? Some mammal mothers babysit other young while out looking
for food but only for short periods of time.
Annotated
Bibliography
"California Sea Lion:
Behavior." Seaworld Parks & Entertainment. N.p., n.d. Web. 05
May 2015.
<http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/california-sea-lion/behavior/>.
A detailed list
of sea lion lifestyle, social behavior,
communication, reproduction and various
other facts.
Carpenter, Julie.
"Dolphins: The Animals That Love and Grieve Just like Us." Daily
Express. Northern and Shell Media Publications, 19 July 2012. Web. 1 May 2015.
<http://www.express.co.uk/expressyourself/333846/Dolphins-The-animals-that-love-and-grieve-just-like-us>.
The act of a mother dolphin carrying her dead calf on her
back proposes the idea of grief in mammals. The idea that the mother was
partaking in a mourning ritual against carrying her calf to a resting place
through the tide. Having seen this act before and knowing that mothers assist
in the calf getting used to its blow hole through chin slap breathing, but the
idea that the mother has not registered the death of her young by engaging in
the literal form of infant carrying. We commonly compare dolphins to humans due
to the high intelligence and activity in social groups.
Keim, Brandon.
"Headline: Animals and Love: Exclusive Excerpt From Exultant Ark."
Wired. Conde Nast Digital, 16 June 2011. Web. 1 May 2015.
<http://www.wired.com/2011/06/exultant-ark-excerpt/>.
Studying the existence of love in mammals with the article
focusing on human love extends to our further understanding of mammalian love.
The behaviors of pinnipeds, cetaceans, sirenians and sea otters between mothers
and their young exhibit qualities we would determine as acts of love. Grooming,
feeding, and continually caring for their young until about a year old and
beyond constitutes the presence of a nurturing. The presences of spindle cells,
which are active in the human brain, stimulate feelings of empathy and social
organization were found in various species of whales (cetaceans). Feelings of
grief, attachment, and dependency are present in other mammals such as
elephants and even birds with their courtship songs and dance meanings.
Manatee Behavior." Seaworld
Parks & Entertainment. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 May 2015.
<http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/manatee/behavior/?__utma=1.1855982937.1428419056.1428419056.1428419056.1&__utmb=1.4.10.1428419056&__utmc=1&__utmx=-&__utmz=1.1428419056.1.1.utmcsr&__utmv=-&__utmk=38804259>.
A simple but detailed list of facts of
manatee lifestyle, social behavior, communication
reproduction and various other facts to
help us better understand our mermaid looking mammal.
"Maternity." Dolphin
Research Center. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2015.
<https://www.dolphins.org/maternity>.
One of many sources for our research into dolphin maternity
care including gestation period, mothering characteristics, social grouping,
young care, and nursing.
McLeod, S.A. "Attachment
Theory." Simply Psychology. N.p., 2009. Web. 05 May 2015.
<http://www.simplypsychology.org/attachment.html>.
Noren, S. R.
"Infant Carrying Behaviour in Dolphins: Costly Parental Care in an Aquatic
Environment." Functional Ecology 22.2 (2008): 284-88. Web. 18 Apr. 2015.
This article details the activity of infant carrying in
dolphins through echelon swimming. Like sea otters and manatees (sirenians)
literally carry their young, dolphins cannot do so and were studied to
understand the locomotors motion between echelon—swimming in a formation or
group, versus swimming solitary. The results determined a slower swimming speed
for the mother when dethatched from her young. Parental care in dolphins
towards their young increases risk of separation as well as how much energy the
mother gives swimming at a consistent speed for the young.
"The Pinnipeds: Seals, Sea Lions,
and Walruses." The Marine Mammal Center. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 May
2015.
<http://www.marinemammalcenter.org/education/marine-mammal-information/pinnipeds/>.
A detailed description to help us differentiate the variety
of seals and sea lions found in California.
"River Otters - Living with
Wildlife." Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife. N.p., n.d.
Web. 05 May 2015. <http://wdfw.wa.gov/living/river_otters.html>.
Continued research about river otters in addition to their
sea otter counterparts. The various differences go in depth to explore lifestyle,
mating habits, and habitat.
Saving Otter 501. Adapt. Spine Films. PBS Nature, 2014.
A PBS Nature
documentary about one sea otter pup rehabilitated found stranded at sea in
California.
Sea Otters (Enhydra Lutris)." National
Geographic. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 May 2015.
<http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/sea-otter/>.
A very brief section on the basics of sea otters from
National Geographic that help us grow to love these slippery, surprised
looking, tool wielding mammals.
Szabo, Andy, and
Dave Duffus. "Mothereoffspring Association in the Humpback Whale,
Megaptera Novaeangliae: Following Behaviour in an Aquatic Mammal."
ScienceDirect 75 (2008): 1082-095. Web. 28 Apr. 2015.
From the Whale Research Lab at the University of Victoria’s
Department of Geography, Professors Andy Szabo and Dave Duffus study behaviors
in humpback whales. This experiment studied the distance between humpback
whales mother offspring while foraging for food. The hypotheses were to examine
the ideas that this behavior is observed in other species and declines with
calf age, that mother’s are responsible for keeping close proximity and hence
shorten their dives to address this separation. And finally, that the claves
would match their mother’s dive behavior over time. Calculations were made in
regards to how much time the mother spent away from her offspring by studying
dive cycles foraging for food. The results concluded these findings as mother’s
staying within close proximity of their young and those similarities in other
species of whales.
Twiss, Sean, and Patrick Pomeroy.
"Maternal Behaviour in Marine Mammals." University of St. Andrews.
N.p., 23 Nov. 2011. Web. 1 May 2015.
<https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/news/archive/2011/title,77371,en.php>.
The variety of behaviors enacted by mother grey seals to
their young that show a different personality for each one. There is a wide
variety of mothering styles that vary and an
experiment to see how seals would react to a potential
threat or predator by how often they protected their pups. There proved to be
inconsistent patterns of checking on their pups and it has nothing to do with age or size. By having
different personalities we can see how they act towards pups and if that
drastically changes the nurturing or the life expectancy.
Viegas, Jennifer.
"Dolphin Babies Swim In Mothers Slipstream." Tuna Fishing News.
Discovery News, 10 May 2004. Web. 05 May 2015.
<http://www.atuna.com/NewsArchive/ViewArticle.asp?ID=1579>.
Researchers for a company focused in tuna fishing recap with
dolphin numbers in regards to tuna fishing and how boats separate mothers and
their calves. An explanation of how traveling in echelon—being in rank or
formation—helps make travel for groups much more efficient and save energy. The
mother dolphin’s slipstream is what helps the young calf keep up with the
mother’s fast pace requiring little energy from the growing calf. Much like how
geese fly in v-formation to reduce wind resistance when flying long distances
without rest.
What Are Sirenians?" Frequently
Asked Questions. Sirenian International, n.d. Web. 4 May 2015.
<http://www.sirenian.org/sirenians.html>.
Another helpful
website that helps make aware the dangers of hunting seals in Flordia. The comparisons
and contrasts various cetaceans and what happened to the decreasing population.
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